Understanding Fascism: History, Ideology, and Misconceptions
The word fascism occasionally appears in history textbooks, on the news, or in debate programs, but many people tend to just gloss over it. As a result, when asked to explain what fascism actually is, it's not so easy.
While the term is often used in the same context as dictatorship, not all dictatorships are necessarily fascist, and relying solely on that understanding can lead to various issues. In this discussion, our goal is to explore the true nature of fascism—something that is frequently used yet often vaguely understood.
We'll begin by reviewing the commonly shared image and definition of the term fascism, then delve into the historical origins of fascism in Italy and Nazi Germany.
We’ll also examine the relationship between those regimes and prewar Japan, explore connections with other ideologies, and consider whether fascism ever existed in the United States.
Through this process, we aim to clarify the position and meaning of fascism.
Definition of Fascism
When we hear the word “fascism,” we often think of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini, totalitarian states where individual freedoms are crushed by secret police and oppressive regimes. However, while many associate fascism with dictatorship, not all dictatorships are fascist.
The term is frequently used yet vaguely understood. Scholars even debate its exact definition. Nevertheless, common traits are often observed:
- Authoritarian leadership
- Severe restriction of individual rights
- Presence of secret police to enforce control
At its core, fascism promotes a unifying national ideology that compels citizens to align with a single national goal—making it a form of “collectivist nationalism.”
The Birth of Fascism
The rise of fascism is deeply tied to the aftermath of World War I. Unlike previous wars, WWI involved entire populations and led to unprecedented destruction. Germany faced massive reparations, and Italy—despite being a victor—did not gain the territories it desired. The public discontent fueled radical ideologies. Many began doubting liberal democracy's ability to handle total war, giving space for fascist ideology to take root.
Italy
In 1922, Mussolini marched on Rome and established the first fascist regime. The term “fascism” comes from “fasces,” a bundle of rods symbolizing strength through unity in ancient Rome. Mussolini promoted the state above all else, suppressing political opposition, disbanding labor unions, and enforcing press censorship. He emphasized a unified national identity over individual or class interests.
Germany
Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) drew inspiration from Italian fascism but adapted it into “Nazism” by adding extreme nationalism, racial superiority, and anti-Semitism. The Nazi regime suppressed individual rights, used propaganda, and employed the Gestapo to eliminate opposition. While similar in structure to fascism, the emphasis on racial purity makes Nazism a distinct variant.
Japan
Pre-WWII Japan saw the military gaining influence and the government suppressing anti-government views using laws like the Peace Preservation Law. The emperor-centered ideology also dominated. However, Japan lacked a singular dictatorial figure and had a more complex political structure. Hence, some scholars describe Japan as having “fascist elements” rather than being purely fascist.
United States?
1. Fascist Movements during the Great Depression
The economic collapse of the 1930s led some Americans to question liberal democracy. Fascist-leaning groups like the Silver Shirts and the German American Bund emerged, echoing Nazi ideologies. However, these groups never gained mainstream support.
2. Roosevelt’s Resistance to Fascism
President Franklin D. Roosevelt pursued the New Deal to recover economically within the democratic framework. Many credit this as a key reason why fascism never took hold in the U.S.
3. McCarthyism
While not fascist, the McCarthy era in the 1950s involved authoritarian-like crackdowns on suspected communists. Media, academia, and the entertainment industry were heavily scrutinized. Some view this as a “fascist moment” in U.S. history, but the democratic system ultimately prevailed.
Democracy vs Fascism?
Fascism promotes the unification of citizens under a single national goal, often at the cost of personal freedoms—leading many to contrast it with democracy. However, equating all authoritarian regimes with fascism is inaccurate. For instance, Soviet communism also involved dictatorship but focused on classless equality, while fascism maintained social hierarchies and prioritized national strength.
Today, when leaders promote nationalism or societal unity, they are sometimes labeled as “neo-fascist,” but using the term too freely can dilute its historical and ideological meaning.
Conclusion: Understanding Fascism Correctly
Fascism is a system that elevates the state above individuals, demands national unity, suppresses dissent, and often revolves around a strong leader. Emerging from the trauma of WWI and disillusionment with liberal democracy, fascism shaped much of the 20th century’s political landscape. Understanding its origins and nuances helps us use the term accurately and avoid oversimplified comparisons in today’s political discourse.